Cunard Line is an English-American cruise line based at Carnival House in Southampton, England, operated by Carnival UK and owned by Carnival Corporation & amp; plc. Since 2011, Cunard and his three ships have been registered in Hamilton, Bermuda.
In 1839 Samuel Cunard, a shipowner in Halifax, was awarded the first British transatlantic steamship contract, and the following year formed the British and North American Steam Package Company along with renowned Scottish Robert Napier. engineer and builder of steam engines, to operate four-row steamship vessels on the Liverpool-Halifax-Boston route. For most of the next 30 years, Cunard holds the Blue Riband for the fastest Atlantic voyage. However, in the 1870s Cunard fell behind his rivals, the White Star Line and Inman Line. To fulfill this competition, in 1879 the company was reorganized as Cunard Fire Company, Ltd. , to raise capital.
In 1902 White Star merged with Mercantile Marine Co. the American and British Government provide Cunard with large loans and subsidies to build the two superlings necessary to maintain its competitive position. Mauretania deployed the Blue Riband from 1909 to 1929. The sinking of her traveling partner Lusitania in 1915 was one of the causes of the United States entering the First World War. In the late 1920s, Cunard faced new competition when Germany, Italy, and France built great prestigious lines. Cunard was forced to suspend construction of his own superliner due to the Great Depression. In 1934 the British Government offered a Cunard loan to settle Queen Mary and to build the second ship, Queen Elizabeth, on condition that Cunard join the ill-fitting White Star line for the form Cunard-White Star Ltd . Cunard has two-thirds of the new company. Cunard bought White Star stock in 1947; the name was returned to Cunard Line in 1950.
At the end of the Second World War, Cunard regained his position as the largest Atlantic passenger line. In the mid-1950s, it operated 12 vessels to the United States and Canada. After 1958, transatlantic passenger ships became unfavorable due to the introduction of jet aircraft. Cunard resigned from year-round service in 1968 to concentrate on summer and transatlantic travel for tourists. The Queens was replaced by Queen Elizabeth 2 ( QE2 ), designed for multiple roles.
In 1998 Cunard was acquired by Carnival Corporation, and accounted for 8.7% of the company's revenue in 2012. In 2003, QE2 was replaced in transatlantic runs with Queen Mary 2 ( QM2 ). This line also operates Queen Victoria ( QV ) and Queen Elizabeth ( QE ). Currently, Cunard is the only shipping company that operates scheduled passenger services between Europe and North America.
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Histori
Tahun-tahun awal: 1840-1850
The British government began operating a monthly mail brigs from Falmouth, Cornwall, to New York in 1756. These ships carry several non-government passengers and no cargo. In 1818, the Black Ball Line opened a regularly scheduled New York-Liverpool service with cutting vessels, beginning an era when American sailing packages dominated the North Atlantic passenger trade that lasted until the introduction of steamers. A Parliamentary Committee decided in 1836 that in order to become more competitive, the mail packets operated by the Post Office had to be replaced by private shipping companies. Admiralty takes over responsibility for managing contracts. The famous Antarctic Explorer Admiral Sir William Edward Parry was appointed Steamship Engineer and Service Pack in April 1837. Nova Scotians led by the Chief of their young Assembly Joseph Howe lobbied for steam services to Halifax. On his arrival in London in May 1838, Howe discussed the company with his colleague Nova Scotian Samuel Cunard (1787-1865), a ship owner who also visited London to do business. Cunard and Howe are colleagues and Howe also owes Cunard Ã,  £ 300 (equivalent to Ã, £ 24,789 in 2016). Cunard returned to Halifax to raise capital, and Howe continued to lobby the British government. The 1837 uprising was ongoing and London was aware that the proposed Halifax service was also important for the military.
In November, Parry released a tender for a monthly North Atlantic mail service to Halifax that began in April 1839 using a steamship with 300 horsepower. The Great Western Steamship Company, which had opened its pioneering Bristol-New York service earlier that year, bid £ 45,000 for a monthly Halifax-New York Halifax service using three 450 horsepower ships. While British American, the pioneer of other transatlantic steamship companies, did not propose the tender, Steam Pack Company St. George, owner of Sirius , bid Ã, £ 45,000 for Cork-Halifax service every month and Ã, Â £ 65,000 for Cork-Halifax-New York service every month. Admiralty rejected both tenders because no offer was offered to start the service early enough.
Cunard, who had returned to Halifax, unfortunately did not know the tender until after the deadline. He returned to London and started negotiations with Admiral Parry, who was Cunard's good friend from when Parry was a young officer stationed in Halifax 20 years earlier. Cunard offered Parry a two-week service beginning in May 1840. While Cunard did not own a steamboat, he had been an investor in a previous steamship venture, Royal William , and had a coal mine in Nova Scotia. Cunard's main supporter is Robert Napier who Robert Napier and Sons is a supplier of Royal Navy steam engines. He also received strong support from Nova Scotian political leaders when London needed to rebuild support in North America after the uprising.
On the Great Western rally, in May 1839 Parry received a £ 55,000 Cunard bid for the three Liverpool-Halifax ship service with an extension to Boston and additional services to Montreal. The annual subsidy then increased Ã,  £ 81,000 to add the fourth ship and departure from Liverpool to monthly during the winter and two weeks for the rest of the year. Parliament investigates the complaints of Great Western, and supports Admiralty's decision. Napier and Cunard recruited other investors including businessmen James Donaldson, Sir George Burns, and David MacIver. In May 1840, just before the first vessel was ready, they formed the British and North American Royal Mail Steam Package with initial capital Ã, £ 270,000, then increased to Ã,  £ 300,000 (Ã, £ 24,858,803 in 2016). Cunard supplied Ã,  £ 55,000. Burning supervised ship construction, McIver is responsible for day-to-day operations, and Cunard is "the first among equals" in the management structure. When MacIver died in 1845, his brother Charles took up his responsibilities for the next 35 years. (For more details on the first investor on the Cunard Line and also Charles Maciver's early life, see Liverpool Nautical Research Society Second Merseyside Maritime History, pp.Ã, 33-37 1991.)
In May 1840, the coastal shore boat Unicorn made its first voyage to Halifax to start additional services to Montreal. Two months later the first of four Britannia-class marine steamers departed from Liverpool. Coincidentally, the steamboat's departure has patriotic meanings on both sides of the Atlantic: it is named after Britannia, and sailed on July 4th. Even on his maiden voyage, his performance showed that a new era that was touted would be far more beneficial to England than the US. While a typical package ship may take several weeks to cross the Atlantic, Britannia reach Halifax in 12 days and 10 hours, averaging 8.5 knots (15.7 km/h), before proceeding to Boston. The relatively fast crossing is quickly becoming the norm for the Cunard Line: during 1840-41, meaning Liverpool-Halifax time for the quartet is 13 days 6 hours to Halifax and 11 days 4 hours home. Two larger boats were quickly booked, one to replace Columbia, who drowned in Seal Island, Nova Scotia, in 1843 with no loss of life. In 1845, the steam line led by Cunard brought more passengers to the sedan than the sailing packages. Three years later, the British Government increased the annual subsidy to £ 156,000 so Cunard could double the frequency. Four additional wooden paddles are ordered and alternative shipping directly to New York, not the Halifax-Boston route. Sailing package tracks are now reduced to immigrant trade.
From the beginning Cunard ships used a typical red line funnel with two or three narrow black bands and black tops. It seems Robert Napier is responsible for this feature. His shipyard in Glasgow used this combination earlier in 1830 on a private steamer Thomas Assheton Smith's "Menai". The renovation of his model by the Glasgow Museum of Transport revealed that he has a vermilion funnel with black ribbon and black top.
Cunard's reputation for safety is an important factor in the company's early success. The first two transatlantic lines failed after a major accident: the British and American lines collapsed after the President ran aground in a storm, and the Western Steamship Company failed after the British was stranded by a navigation error. Cunard's command to his master is, "Your ship is loaded, take him, speed does nothing, follow your own path, secure him, bring him back safely - safety is all that is needed." In particular, Charles MacIver's constant inspection is responsible for the company's safety discipline.
New Competition: 1850-1879
In 1850, the American Collins Line and British Inman Line started a new Atlantic steamship service. The American government supplied Collins with a large annual subsidy to operate four wooden paddles that were superior to the best Cunard, as they demonstrated with three Blue Riband-winning trips between 1850 and 1854. Meanwhile, Inman showed that iron-hardened and hulled steamers Simple speed can be profitable without subsidies. Inman also became the first steamship lane to carry passenger ships. The two newcomers suffered a major disaster in 1854. The following year, Cunard put pressure on Collins by commissioning the first skinned scarf, Persian . That pressure may have been a factor in the second major catastrophe suffered by Collins Line, the loss of its Pacific steamship. The Pacific sailed out of Liverpool just days before Persian was due to leave on its maiden voyage, and never to be seen again; is widely assumed at the time the captain has pushed his ship to the limit to stay in front of the new Cunarder, and the possibility of colliding with icebergs during a very severe winter in the North Atlantic. A few months later Persia blew a further blow to Collins Line, regaining the Blue Riband with a 9-day, 16-hour Liverpool-New York trip, averaging 13.11 knots (24.28 km/h).
During the Crimean War Cunard supplied 11 ships for war service. Every North Atlantic route of Britain was suspended until 1856 except Cunard's Liverpool-Halifax-Boston service. While Collins' fortunes increased due to a lack of competition during the war, it collapsed in 1858 after subsidies to carry letters across the Atlantic were reduced by the US Congress. Cunard emerged as the main carrier of passenger sedans and in 1862 commissioned Scotia , the last paddle steamer to win the Blue Riband. Inman brought more passengers because of his success in immigrant trade. To compete, in May 1863, Cunard began a secondary Liverpool-New York service with an iron-tipped screw lift that was reserved for passenger ships. Starting with China , this line also replaces the last three wood papers on the New York mail service with iron screws that only carry passenger sedans.
When Cunard died in 1865, Charles MacIver, who was both conservative, took on the role of Cunard. The company retains its reluctance to change and is overtaken by competitors who adopt new technologies faster. In 1866 Inman began to build a screw express liner that matched the main unit of Cunard, Scotia . Cunard replied with his first high-speed bolt, propelled by a propeller, Russia followed by two larger editions. In 1871 the two companies faced a new rival when White Star Line commissioned Oceanic and five sisters. The new White Star record breaker is very economical because they use compound machines. The White Star also sets a new standard for comfort by placing a midhead saloon and doubling the size of the cabin. Inman rebuilt his expedition fleet to new standards, but Cunard lagged behind both rivals. Throughout the 1870s, Cunard's transition time was longer than White Star or Inman.
In 1867, responsibility for the letter contract was transferred back to the Post Office and opened for bidding. Cunard, Inman and Norddeutscher Lloyd Germany each got one of three weekly New York newspaper services. The two-week trip to Halifax previously held by Cunard goes to Inman. Cunard continues to receive  £ 80,000 subsidies (equivalent to £ 6,500,829 in 2016), while NDL and Inman are paid sea freight. Two years later the service was rebid and Cunard was awarded a seven-year contract for two weekly New York newspaper services for £ 70,000 per year. Inman was awarded a seven-year contract for a third weekly New York service at a price of £ 35,000 per year.
Panic of 1873 started a five-year depressive depression that depressed the finances of all Atlantic competitors. In 1876 the mailing contract expired and the Post Office terminated the subsidies of Cunard and Inman. New contracts are paid by weight, with rates much higher than those paid by the United States Post Office. The weekly New York Cunard weekly shipping was reduced to one and White Star was awarded a third letter voyage. Every Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, a liner from one of three companies left Liverpool with a letter to New York.
Cunard Steamship Company Ltd: 1879-1934
To raise additional capital, in 1879, the privately-administered Royal Mail Company of Britain and North America Self-Service Packages was reorganized as a public stock company, Cunard Steamship Company, Ltd . Under the new leadership of Cunard, John Burns (1839-1900), son of one of the original founders of the company, Cunard commissioned four steel-made express liners with Servia in 1881, the first electric passenger vessel. along. In 1884, Cunard purchased an almost new Blue Riband winner of Oregon from the Guion Line when the company failed in payment to the shipyard. That year, Cunard also commissioned record breakers Umbria and Etruria capable of 19.5 knots (36.1 km/h). Beginning in 1887, Cunard's newly won leadership in the North Atlantic was threatened when Inman and then White Star responded with twin screw breakers. In 1893 Cunard replied with two quicker Blue Riband winners, Campania and Lucania , capable of 21.8 knots (40.4 km/h).
Not long after Cunard re-established his supremacy instead of emerging new rivals. Beginning in the late 1860s some German companies commissioned liners almost as fast as British steamers from Liverpool. In 1897, Kaiser Wilhelm der GroÃÆ'Ÿe of Norddeutscher Lloyd raised the Blue Riband to 22.3 knots (41.3 km/h), followed by a German record-breaking succession. Instead of matching with the new German speedsters, White Star - a rival to which the Cunard line will join - commissioned four highly profitable Celtic class liners at a more moderate pace for its secondary Liverpool-New York service. In 1902 the White Star joined the combined United States capital, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM), which has an American Line, including the old Inman Line, and other lines. IMM also has trade agreements with Hamburg-America and Norddeutscher Lloyd.
British prestige is at stake. The British government provides Cunard with an annual subsidy of £ 150,000 plus a low interest loan Ã, £ 2.5 million (equivalent to Ã, £ 247 million in 2016), to pay for the construction of two superliners, Blue Ribbon winner > Lusitania and Mauretania , capable of 26.0 knots (48.2 km/h). In 1903 the company started the Fiume-New York service with a call at the ports of Italy and Gibraltar. The following year Cunard commissioned two ships to compete directly with Celtic grade liners on the secondary Liverpool-New York route. In 1911 Cunard entered the St. Lawrence trade by buying the Thompson line, and absorbed the Royal line five years later.
Do not want to lose, both White Star and Hamburg-Americans each order a superliner trio. The White Star Olympic -class liners at 21.5 knots (39.8 km/h) and Hapag Imperator class liners at 22.5 knots (41.7 km/hour) bigger and more luxurious than Cunarders, but not as fast as that. Cunard also ordered a new boat, Aquitania , capable of 24.0 knots (44.4 km/h), to complete the Liverpool fleet. The event prevents expected competition between three sets of superliner. White Star's Titanic drowned in its flagship voyages, both White Star and Cunard's Lusitania were war losses, and three super-liners that were delivered to power Allies as war reparations.
In 1916 Cunard Line completed the European headquarters in Liverpool, moving on June 12 of that year. Cunard's grand neo-classic grand building is the third of Liverpool's Three Graces . The headquarters was used by Cunard until the 1960s.
Due to the loss of the First World War, Cunard embarked on a post-war rebuilding program including eleven intermediate lines. It acquired the former Hapag Imperium (renamed Berengaria ) to replace the missing Lusitania as a companion pair for Mauretania and Aquitania , and Southampton replaced Liverpool as England's destination for the three-ship express service. In 1926, Cunard's fleet was larger than before the war, and the White Star suffered a setback, having been sold by IMM.
Despite the dramatic reduction in North Atlantic passengers caused by depression shipments that began in 1929, Germany, Italy and France commissioned new liner liner liners. Germany Bremen took the Blue Riband at 27.8 knots (51.5 km/h) in 1933, the Italian Rex recorded 28.9 knots (53.5 km/h ) in the west sailed the same year, and the French Normandie crossed the Atlantic in less than four days at 30.58 knots (56.63 km/h) in 1937. In 1930 Cunard ordered a weighted vessel The 80,000 tonne will be the first of two record breakers fast enough to get into the Southampton-New York two-ship service every week. Working on "Hull Number 534" was discontinued in 1931 due to economic conditions.
Cunard-White Star Ltd: 1934-1949
In 1934, the Cunard Line and the White Star Line were in financial trouble. David Kirkwood, MP for Clydebank, where Hull Number 534, who has not finished sitting for two and a half years, submitted a passionate petition in the House of Commons for funding to complete the vessel and restart an inactive UK economy. The government offered Cunard a loan of  £ 3 million to complete Hull Number 534 and an additional Ã,  £ 5 million to build a second ship, if Cunard joined the White Star.
This merger occurred on May 10, 1934, creating Cunard-White Star Limited. Merging is done with Cunard which has about two-thirds of the capital. Because the surplus tonnage of the newly combined Cunard White Star fleet, many old ships were delivered to the trash; these include ex-Cunard liner Mauretania and former White Star liner Olympic and Homeric . In 1936 the former White Star Majestic was sold when Hull Number 534, now called Queen Mary , replaced it on the express mail service. Queen Mary reached 30.99 knots (57.39 km/h) on his 1938 Blue Riband voyage. Cunard-White Star began construction on Queen Elizabeth, and the smaller vessel, the second of Mauretania, joined the fleet and could also be used in the Atlantic when one of the Queens was in drydock. The ex-Cunard ship Berengaria was sold for used goods in 1938 after a series of fires.
During the Second World War, Queens brought more than two million soldiers and was credited by Churchill as an aid to shorten the one-year war. All four of the large Cunard-White Star express liners, two Queens, Aquitania and Mauretania survived, but many missing secondary vessels. Both Lancastria and Laconia drown with heavy loss of life.
In 1947 Cunard bought the White Star flower, and in 1949 the company had dropped the name of the White Star and renamed it to Cunard Line . Also in 1947 the company commissioned five cargoes and two cargo liners. Caronia , completed in 1949 as a permanent cruise ship and Aquitania has retired next year. Cunard was in a very good position to take advantage of the increase in North Atlantic travel during the 1950s and Queens was the main generator of the US currency for Great Britain. Cunard's slogan, "Being there is half the fun", specifically aimed at tourist trade. Beginning in 1954, Cunard received a new four-tier delivery of 22,000 GRT for the Canadian route and the Liverpool-New York route. The last White Star motorcycle, Britannic in 1930, remained in operation until 1960.
In 1960 a government-appointed committee recommended the construction of the Q3 project, a conventional 75,000 GRT vessel to replace the Queen Mary . Under the plan, the government will lend Cunard a majority of ship costs. However, some Cunard shareholders questioned the plan at a June 1961 board meeting as transatlantic flights became popular. In 1963, the plan was converted into a double-purpose ship consisting of 55,000 GRTs designed for off-season sailing. In the end, the ship began operations in 1969 as 70,300 GRT Queen Elizabeth 2 .
In the ten years since the introduction of jet aircraft in 1958, most conventional cruise ships have disappeared. Maureenania retired in 1965, Queen Mary and Caronia in 1967, and Queen Elizabeth in 1968. Two of the new liners were sold in 1970 and the other two were converted to cruise ships. Cunard tried to operate scheduled flights to North America, Caribbean and South America by forming BOAC-Cunard Ltd in 1962 with British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC), but this business only lasted until 1966. All Cunard ships fly Cunard flags above the Star Flag White until the end of 1968. Most likely because the White Star Line Nomadic remained in operation with Cunard until 4 November 1968, and was sent to the breakers' page, only to be purchased for use as a floating restaurant. After this, all remaining lines of the White Star Line and Cunard-White Star Line are stopped.
Trafalgar House of the year: 1971-1998
In 1971, when the queue was purchased by the Trafalgar House conglomerate, Cunard operated cargo and passenger ships, hotels and resorts. The cargo fleet consists of 42 operating vessels, with 20 orders. The flagship of the passenger fleet is two years Queen Elizabeth 2 . The fleet also includes two intermediate vessels remaining from the 1950s, plus two custom-built yachts based on orders. Trafalgar acquired two additional yachts and dumped the liner between and most of the cargo fleet. During the Falklands War, QE2 and Cunard Countess were chartered as troopships while Cunard Atlantic Conveyor container ship was drowned by an Exocet missile.
Cunard acquired the Norwegian America Line in 1983, with two classic ships/yachts. Also in 1983, Trafalgar tried to take over P & amp; O, passenger and other large freight lines, formed in the same year as Cunard. P & amp; O objected and forced the matter to the British Monopoly and Merger Commission. In their archiving, P & amp; O is critical of Trafalgar Cunard's management and their failure to fix the mechanical problems QE2 . In 1984, the Commission decided to support the merger, but Trafalgar decided not to continue. In 1988, Cunard acquired Ellerman Lines and a small fleet of cargo ships, arranging business as Cunard-Ellerman, however, just a few years later, Cunard decided to leave the cargo business and focus solely on cruise ships. Cunard's cargo fleet was sold between 1989 and 1991, with one container vessel, the second
In the mid-1990s, Cunard was ill. The company was embarrassed at the end of 1994 when QE2 suffered many defects during the first voyage of the season due to unfinished renovation work. Claims from passengers cost the company $ 13 million. After Cunard reported a loss of US $ 25 million in 1995, Trafalgar assigned a new CEO to the frontline, concluding that the company had management problems. In 1996, the Norwegian conglomerate KvÃÆ'Â|rner acquired Trafalgar House, and attempted to sell Cunard. When there are no enthusiasts, KvÃÆ'Â|rner makes a great investment to change the reputation of a tarnished company.
Carnival: from 1998
In 1998 the conglomerate company Carnival Corporation acquired 68% of Cunard for US $ 425 million. The next year's carnival acquired the remaining stock for US $ 205 million. In the end, Carnival sued KvÃÆ'Â|rner claiming that the ships were in worse shape than those represented and KvÃÆ'Â|rner agreed to return USD $ 50 million to the Carnival. Each Carnival cruise line is designed to appeal to different markets, and Carnival is keen to rebuild Cunard as a luxury brand trade in its British tradition. Under the slogan "Advancing Civilization Since 1840", Cunard's advertising campaign seeks to emphasize the elegance and mystique of marine travel. Only QE2 and Caronia are continued under the Cunard brand and the company started the Queen Mary Project to build new ships/yachts for transatlantic. route.
In 2001 Carnival was the largest shipping company, followed by Royal Caribbean and P & amp; O Princess Cruises, which recently split from its mother, P & amp; O. When Royal Caribbean and P & amp; O Princess agrees to join, Carnival responds with an unfriendly takeover bid for P & amp; O Princess. Carnival rejected the idea of ​​selling Cunard to settle antitrust issues with acquisitions. European and US regulators approve mergers without requiring Cunard sales. After the merger was completed, Carnival moved Cunard's headquarters to Princess Cruises office in Santa Clarita, California, so administrative, financial and technological services could be combined.
Carnival House opened in Southampton in 2009, and Cunard Line executive control was transferred from Carnival Corporation in the United States, to Carnival UK, the main operating company Carnival plc. As a UK registered parent company Carnival plc has executive control over all Carnival Group activities in the UK, with the headquarters of all UK-based brands, including Cunard, at the office at Carnival House.
In 2004, the 36-year-old QE2 QE2 was changed in the North Atlantic by Queen Mary 2 . Caronia sold and QE2 continued sailing until she retired in 2008. In 2007 Cunard added a large cruise ship, Queen Victoria . She is not a sister to QM2 , commanded by Carnival as a Vista class yacht for Holland America Line. To strengthen the Cunard tradition, QV has a small museum on board. Cunard commissioned a second-class Vista voyage, Queen Elizabeth , in 2010.
In 2010 Cunard appointed his first female commander, Captain Inger Klein Olsen.
In 2011 the three Cunard ships in the service changed the ship's registry to Hamilton, Bermuda, for the first time in its 171-year history the company did not have a ship registered in the UK. The captain of a ship registered in Bermuda, but not in England, can marry a spouse at sea; marriage in the sea is a lucrative market.
On May 25, 2015, three Cunard - Queen Mary 2 vessels, Queen Elizabeth and Queen Victoria - sailed to Mersey to Liverpool to commemorate the 175th anniversary year Cunard. The ships do the maneuvers, including turns 180 degrees, when Red Arrows fly-then. More than a year later Queen Elizabeth returned to Liverpool under Captain Olsen to take part in the centenary celebration of the Cunard Building on June 2, 2016.
Maps Cunard Line
Fleet
The Cunard Fleet, all built for Cunard unless otherwise stated, consists of the following ships in the order of acquisition:
1840-1850
All these period ships have wooden hulls and rowing wheels.
1850-1879
Only Arabia has a wooden hilt and only Arabia , Persian and Scotia has a paddle wheel.
1879-1934
1934-1971
Lihat juga: White Star Line Olympic , Homeric , Majestic , Doric , Laurentic , Britannic dan Georgic .
1971-1998
1998-present
Armada masa depan
Hotel Cunard
After Trafalgar House bought it in 1971, Cunard operated previous hotels as the Cunard-Trafalgar Hotel. In the 1980s, the chain was restyled as Hotel Cunard & amp; The resort, before folding in 1995.
See also
- The cruise line
- Transatlantic crossing
References
Note
Bibliography
External links
- Official website
- The Cunard History Web site at Chriscunard.com
- The 'Queen Mary 2' Official Fan Page
- Passenger List of Cunard Lines, Brochures, Other History Documents 1800 - 1954
- The Last Ocean Liners - Cunard Line - Cunard Line's trading and ship routes since the 1950s
- http://www.charlesfreemandesign.com/curator-intro Cunard Sesquicentennial Exhibition - 150 Years of Transatlantic - The Ocean Liner Museum, New York NY
- Documents and clippings about the Cunard Line at the 20th Century Press Archives of the German National Library of Economics (ZBW).
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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