Christina (December 18 [OS 8 December] Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, Ã, 1626 - April 19, 1689) ruled as Queen of Sweden from 1632 until her abduction in 1654. She was the only son of the living King Gustav II Adolph and the wife of Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg. At the age of six, Christina replaced his father on the throne after his death in the Battle of Lützen, but began to rule when he reached the age of 18.
Christina is remembered as one of the most educated women in the 17th century. He loves books, manuscripts, paintings, and sculptures. With his interest in religion, philosophy, mathematics, and alchemy, he attracted many scientists to Stockholm, wanting the city to be "North Athens." He's smart, fickle and moody. She also rejected what a woman's sexual role was at the time. He caused a scandal when he decided not to marry and in 1654 when he abdicated and turned to Roman Catholicism. He changed his name from Kristina Augusta Wasa, adopting the name Christina Alexandra.
At the age of 28, "Minerva of the North" handed the throne to his cousin and moved to Rome. The Pope described Christina as "the queen without kingdom, a Christian without faith, and a woman without shame." Despite all that, he became the leader of theater and music life and protected many Baroque artists, composers, and musicians.
Being a guest of five successive popes, and a symbol of the Counter Reformation, he is one of several women buried in the Vatican cave. Her unconventional lifestyle and masculine makeup and behavior have been featured in innumerable novels, dramas, operas and films. In all biographies about Christina, her gender and cultural identity plays an important role.
Video Christina, Queen of Sweden
Kehidupan awal
Christina was born in the royal court of Tre Kronor. The king and his wife, Maria Eleonora, have had two daughters - an unnamed daughters born in 1620, and then the first daughter of Christina, who was born in 1623 and died the following year. Exciting expectations surrounded the third pregnancy of Maria Eleonora in 1626. When the baby was born, it was first thought of as a boy because her hair was "hairy" and shouted "out loud and hoarse." He later wrote in his autobiography that, "It is very embarrassing to spread among women when they find their fault." However, the king was very pleased, stating, "He will be smart, he has made us all fools!" From most accounts, Gustav Adolf seems very close to his daughter, and he seems to admire him a lot.
Swedish and Polish Vasa
The crown of Sweden is hereditary in the House of Vasa, but from the time of King Charles IX (reign 1604-11), it excludes the Vasa descendant prince of the marginalized brothers (Eric XIV of Sweden) and the deposed nephew (Sigismund III of Poland). Gustav Adolf's legitimate siblings had died a few years earlier. The only legitimate woman left, her step sister, was excluded in 1615 when she married a non-Lutheran. So Christina became the only heir to the allegations. From the birth of Christina, King Gustav Adolph acknowledged his worth even as a female heir, and although called the "queen," the official title he held since his coronation by the Riksdag in February 1633 was King.
As queen, Christina holds a Queen title from Sweden, Goth (or Geats) and Wends ( Suecorum, Gothorum Vandalorumque Regina ); Grand Princess of Finland, and Duchess of Estonia, Livonia and Karelia, Bremen-Verden, Stettin, Pomerania, Cassubia and Vandalia, Princess of Rugia, Lady of Ingria and Wismar.
Maps Christina, Queen of Sweden
District
Before Gustav Adolf departed to Germany to defend Protestantism in the Thirty Years' War, he guaranteed the rights of his daughter to inherit the throne, if he had never returned, and ordered Axel Gustafsson BanÃÆ'Â © r, his marshal, that Christina should receive kind of education normally given to a boy.
His mother, from the Hohenzollern Family, was a woman with a desperate and melancholy temperament. Maybe he's crazy. After the king died on 6 November 1632 on the battlefield, his corpse was taken home in a coffin, with his heart in a separate box. Maria Eleonora ordered that the king not be buried until he was buried with him. He also demanded that the coffin be kept open, and went to see it regularly, tapped it and paid no attention to the decay. Finally, the shy Chancellor, Axel Oxenstierna, saw no other solution than to have a guard installed in the room to prevent further episodes. As a result, he was not buried until June 22, 1634, more than eighteen months later.
In 1634, Government Instrument (1634), a new constitution, was introduced by Oxenstierna. The Constitution stipulates that the "King" must have an Advisory Council, led by Oxenstierna himself.
Christina then became the center of attention of her late mother. Having previously shown the indifference of his daughter, Maria Eleonora is concerned with her. Gustav Adolf has decided that in the event of his death, his daughter must be cared for by her stepbrother, Catherine of Sweden and half-brother Carl Gyllenhielm as regent. This solution is incompatible with Maria Eleonora, who has her brother-in-law banned from the castle. In 1636, the Chancellor of the Oxenstierna saw no other solution than to alienate the widow to the Gripsholm castle, while the ruling council would decide when he would be allowed to meet his nine-year-old daughter. Over the next three years, Christina thrives in her aunt's company, Catherine and her family.
In 1638, following the death of her aunt and the adopted mother of Catherine of Sweden, the Council of the Kingdom District under Axel Oxenstierna saw the need to appoint a new adopted mother to the underage king (her exiled mother), resulting in a reorganization of the queen household. To avoid the young queen from being dependent on the individual figure and the single favorite mother, the Royal Council decided to divide the lady-in-waiting head office (royal lady-in-waiting) and royal office officials (or adopt mothers) in four, with two women appointed to share each office. Thus, Ebba Leijonhufvud and Christina Natt och Dag were appointed to share the position of royal governor and adoptive mother with the title of Upptuktelse-FÃÆ'¶restÃÆ'  ¥ nderska ('The Coffin of the Dead'), while Beata Oxenstierna and Ebba Ryning designated to share the position of lady-in-waiting head, all four with official rank and title HovmÃÆ'¤starinna .
The Royal Council Method gave Christina's queen of adoptive mothers to avoid her form attachment to one seemingly effective, as Christina did not mention her foster mother directly in her life history and did not seem to form any attachment to anyone. from them; In fact, with only a few exceptions, such as Ebba Sparre, Jane Ruthven and Louise van der Nooth, Christina showed no interest in any of her female servants, and she usually referred to them in her memoirs only to compare herself well to them by calling herself more masculine than they are.
Queen regnant
Christina was educated as a royal man. The theologian Johannes Matthiae Gothus became his teacher; he gave him religious lessons, philosophy, Greek and Latin. The Chancellor of Oxenstierna taught his politics and discussed Tacitus with him. Oxenstierna writes proudly about the 14-year-old girl, "She is nothing like a woman" and that she has "intelligent intelligence". Christina seemed happy to learn ten hours a day. In addition to Swedish, he studied at least eight other languages: German, Dutch, Danish, French, Italian, Arabic, and Hebrew.
In 1636-1637, Peter Minuit and Samuel Blommaert negotiated with the government on the founding of New Sweden, the first Swedish colony in the New World. In 1638, Minuit founded Fort Christina in what is now Wilmington, Delaware; also Christina River named after her.
In 1644, Christina was declared an adult, though the coronation was postponed due to war with Denmark. In December 1643, Swedish troops invaded Holstein and Jutland in the Torstenson War. The Swedes got many of their sudden attacks. In the Agreement BrÃÆ'¶msebro Denmark handed the Gotland and ÃÆ'-cell islands to Sweden while Norway lost the JÃÆ'¤mtland and HÃÆ'¤rjedalen districts. Sweden now almost controls the Baltic Sea, has unlimited access to the North Sea and is no longer surrounded by Denmark-Norway.
In 1648 he commissioned 35 paintings of Jacob Jordaens for the ceiling at Uppsala Castle. In 1649, 760 paintings, 170 marble and 100 bronze statues, 33,000 coins and medals, 600 pieces of crystals, 300 scientific instruments, manuscripts and books (including Sanctae Crucis laudibus by Rabanus Maurus, Codex Argenteus and Codex Gigas ) were transported to Stockholm. Art, from Prague Castle, belonging to Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor and captured by Hans Christoff von KÃÆ'¶nigsmarck during the Battle of Prague and the Nuremberg Peace negotiations. In 1649-1650, "his desire to gather the people who studied around him, as well as the rare books and manuscripts, became almost like a mania," wrote Goldsmith. To catalog his new collection he asked Isaac Vossius to come to Sweden and Heinsius to buy more books in the market.
In 1649, with the help of his uncle, John Casimir, and his cousin Christina tried to reduce the influence of Oxenstierna, and he declared the son of Casimir, his cousin Charles Gustav, as his alleged heir. The following year, Christina rejected demands from other estates (pastors, farmers and peasants) at the Riksdag of the Plantation for a reduction in the ownership of the duty-free land. He never implemented that policy.
Thirty Years' War
His father, Gustavus Adolphus, came to help the German Lutherans in an effort to reduce the Catholic influence on his borders and to gain economic influence in the German states around the Baltic Sea. Calculate Oxenstierna when acting as a regent, continue the Swedish part of the war. After the Battle of NÃÆ'¶rdlingen, the Swedish army retreated from the south. Cardinal Richelieu decided to support Sweden with money and the army and the Treaty of Paris (1634) and the CompiÃÆ'¨gne Agreement (1635) signed. Two years later the Swedish army was pushed back to Pommerania Sweden.
The Chancellor of Oxenstierna soon discovered that Christina had a different political view of herself. In 1645 he sent his son, Johan Oxenstierna, to the Peace Congress in OsnabrÃÆ'¼ck and MÃÆ'¼nster, presenting the view that would be Sweden's best interest if the Thirty Years War continued. Christina, however, wanted peace at any cost and sent her own delegation, Johan Adler Salvius.
The Westphalia peace was signed between May and October 1648 in the towns of Westfalen OsnabrÃÆ'¼ck and MÃÆ'¼nster, effectively ending European religious wars. Sweden received a compensation of five million talers, used primarily to pay its troops. Sweden further received the West Pommern (later from Pommern Sweden), Wismar, and the Bremen and Verden Bishops as hereditary carvings, earning seats and choosing within the Imperial Diet of Holy Roman Empire and in their respective circles ( Kreistag ) from the Upper Saxon, Lower Saxon and Westphalian circles.
Shortly before the conclusion of a peaceful settlement, he admitted Salvius to the Council, against the wishes of the Chancellor of the Oxenstierna. Salvius was not an aristocrat, but Christina wanted to oppose the presence of the aristocracy. In 1648 Christina obtained a seat in the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire when Bremen-Verden and Swedish Pomerania were assigned to Sweden in the Treaty of Osnabrück; the city of Bremen is disputed.
Arts protection
In 1645 Christina invited Hugo Grotius to become her librarian, but she died on her way in Rostock. That same year he founded Ordinari Post Tijdender (which means "Ordinary Mail Times" in English), the oldest published newspaper currently in the world. In 1647 Johann Freinsheim was appointed as his librarian. After the Battle of Prague (1648), where his troops looted Prague Castle, much of the treasure collected by Rudolph II was brought back to Stockholm. Therefore Christina obtained for her library a number of valuable pictorial works and rare manuscripts. The inventory made at the time mentioned 100 a KunstbÃÆ'¼chern alerhand ("a hundred art books of various kinds"), among them two world-renowned manuscripts: the Gigas Codex and the Codex Argenteus.
"Semiramis of the North" corresponds to Pierre Gassendi, his favorite author. Blaise Pascal offered him a copy of his pascaline. He has a strong understanding of classical history and philosophy. Christina studied Neostoism, the Fathers of the Church, and Islam; He systematically sought copies of the Treatise of the Three Impostors, a work that cast doubt on all organized religions. In 1651, Kabbali, Menasseh ben Israel offered to be his agent or librarian for Hebrew books and manuscripts; they discussed his messianic idea as he recently revealed in his most recent book, Hope Hope Israel. Other famous scholars who came to visit were Claude Saumaise, Johannes Schefferus, Olaus Rudbeck, Johann Heinrich Boeckler, Gabriel Naudà ©, Christian Ravis, Nicolaas Heinsius, Samuel Bochart along with Pierre Daniel Huet and Marcus Meibomius, who wrote the book on Greek dance.
Christina was interested in the theater, especially the drama Pierre Corneille; he himself is an amateur actress. In 1647 the Italian architect Antonio Brunati was ordered to build a theater arrangement in one of the larger rooms in the palace. The palace poet Georg Stiernhielm wrote several Swedish dramas, such as «den fÃÆ' Â ngen Cupido eller Laviancu de Diane , performing with Christina in the main part of Diana's goddess. He invited foreign companies to play in Bollhuset, like the Italian opera group in 1652 with Vincenzo Albrici and Dutch theater troupe with Ariana Nozeman and Susanna van Lee in 1653. Among the French artists he employed was Anne Chabanceau de La Barre, who made the singer palace. From 1638 Oxenstierna hired a French ballet troupe under Antoine de Beaulieu, who also had to teach Christina to move more elegantly.
In 1646, Christina's good friend, ambassador Pierre Chanut, met and corresponded with the philosopher Renà © Descartes, requesting a copy of Reflections . After showing the queen of several letters, Christina became interested in starting a correspondence with Descartes. He invited him to Sweden, but Descartes was reluctant until he asked him to set up a scientific academy. Christina sent a ship to take philosophers and 2,000 books. Descartes arrived on October 4, 1649. He lived with Chanut, and completed the Passions of the Soul. It is impossible Descartes wrote "Ballet de la Naissance de la Paix", which was done on his birthday. The next day, December 19, 1649, he may start with his private lessons. With Christina's tight schedule, she was invited to a cold and windy castle at 5 am every day to discuss philosophy and religion. It soon became clear they did not like each other; he did not approve of his mechanical views, and he did not appreciate his interest in Ancient Greece. On January 15 Descartes writes he has seen Christina only four or five times. On February 1, 1650, Descartes was cold. He died ten days later, on the morning of February 11, 1650, and according to Chanut the cause of his death was pneumonia.
Decision not to marry
Already at the age of nine Christina was impressed by the Catholic religion and the virtues of celibacy. He read the biography of the queen Elizabeth I of England with great interest. Christina understood that it was expected to give the heir to the Swedish throne (her cousin Charles Charles was crazy about her, and they became secretly engaged before she left in 1642 to serve in the Swedish army in Germany for three years). Christina reveals in her autobiography that she feels "an insurmountable hatred for marriage" and "for all the things women talk about and do." Because she was especially busy with her lessons, she slept three to four hours a night, forgetting to comb her hair, put her clothes in a rush and wear men's shoes for comfort. Her naughty hair became her trademark. Her closest female friend is Ebba Sparre, with whom she shares "old and intimate friendships". Christina, said to have charm, called her "Belle" and most of her spare time she spends with la belle comtesse . He introduced the passion of his youth to the British ambassador Whitelocke as his "bedmate" and praised his thoughts and beauty. When Christina left Sweden, she continued to write passionate letters to Sparre, where she told him that she would always love him.
On February 26, 1649, Christina announced that she had decided not to marry and instead wanted her cousin Charles to be the heir to the throne. While the nobles objected to this, three other agencies - priests, peasants, and peasants - accepted it. The coronation took place on October 22, 1650. Christina went to Jacobsdal castle where she entered with a black velvet-covered black corridor and was drawn by three white horses. The procession to Storkyrkan was so long that when the first car arrived, the last one had not left Jacobsdal. The four plantations were invited to eat at the castle. A fountain in the market splashed wine for three days, baked served, and gleaming illumination, followed by The Illustrious Splendors of Felicity ('The Illustrious Splendors of Felicity') on October 24th.
Personal religion and views
His tutor, Johannes Matthiae, was influenced by John Dury and Comenius, who since 1638 had worked on the new Swedish school system, representing a softer attitude than most Lutherans. In 1644, he suggested a new church order, but he was rejected because it was interpreted as Crypto-Calvinism. Queen Christina defended her against the counsel of the Oxenstierna chancellor, but three years later, the proposal had to be withdrawn. In 1647, priests wanted to introduce the Book of Concord (the Swedish language: Konkordieboken ) - a book that defines true Lutheranism versus heresy, makes some aspects of thinking theologically free is impossible. Matthiae strongly opposed this and back supported by Christina. The Book of Concord was not introduced.
He has a long conversation about Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Bacon, and Kepler with Antonio Macedo, secretary and translator for the Portuguese ambassador. Macedo was a Jesuit, and in August 1651 smuggled a letter from Christina to his general in Rome. In response, Paolo Casati and Francesco Malines came to Sweden in the spring of 1652, trained in both natural and theological sciences. He has more conversations with them, interested in the Catholic view of sin, the immortality of the soul, rationality and free will. Both scholars revealed his plans to Cardinal Fabio Chigi. Around May 1652 Christina decided to become a Roman Catholic. He sent Matthias Palbitzki to Madrid; in August King Philip IV of Spain sent Spanish diplomat Antonio Pimentel de Prado to Stockholm.
After ruling for almost twenty years, working at least ten hours a day, Christina has what some perceive as a nervous breakdown. She suffers from high blood pressure, complains about poor vision and pain in her neck. GrÃÆ'Â © goire FranÃÆ'§ois Du Rietz, since 1642 the palace physician, was summoned when he suddenly collapsed in 1651. In February 1652, the French physician Pierre Bourdelot arrived in Stockholm. Unlike most doctors at the time, he had no confidence in letting blood; on the contrary, he ordered adequate sleep, a warm bath and healthy food, as opposed to Christina's asceticism which until now. She was only twenty-five years old, and told her that she should enjoy life more, Bourdelot asked her to stop studying and work so hard and remove books from her apartment. Over the years, Christina knows with all the sonnets of Ars Amatoria and is interested in works by Martial and Petronius. The doctor showed him 16 erotic sonatas Pietro Aretino, which he kept secretly in his suitcase. In a subtle way Bourdelot undermines its principles. He is now Epicurean. His mother and de la Gardie strongly opposed Bourdelot's activities and tried to convince him to change his attitude toward him; Bourdelot returned to France in 1653, "full of riches and curses".
Abdication
Christina told the council: "I do not mean to give you an excuse, [I] is not fit to get married." The council refused and Christina agreed to keep on condition they never again asked her to get married. In 1651, Christina lost most of her popularity after the beheading of Arnold Johan Messenius, along with her 17-year-old son, who accused her of making a serious mistake and becoming a "Jezebel". According to them, "Christina brought everything to destruction, and that she cares nothing but sport and pleasure."
In 1653, he established the Amaranten order. Antonio Pimentel was appointed first knight; all members must promise not to marry (again). In 1653, he ordered Vossius (and Heinsius) to list about 6,000 books and manuscripts for packing and shipping to Antwerp. In February 1654, he clearly told the Council of his plans for abdication. Oxenstierna told him that he would regret his decision within a few months. In May, the Riksdag discussed his proposal. He has requested 200,000 rikstalers a year, but receives power instead. He is financially secured through pensions and income from the city of Norrköping, the islands of Gotland, ÃÆ'â € "land ÃÆ' â €" Cell and Poel, Wolgast, and Neukloster in Mecklenburg and plantations in Pomerania.
His plan to convert was not the only reason to let him go, because there was an increasingly arbitrary and extravagant dissatisfaction. In ten years, he and Oxenstierna have created 17 counts, 46 barons and 428 lower nobles. To provide these new associates with sufficient appraisal, they have sold or stockpiled crown properties representing the annual revenue of 1,200,000 rikackers. During his ten-year reign, the number of noble families increased from 300 to about 600, rewarding the likes of Lennart Torstenson, Du Rietz, Louis De Geer, and Johan Palmstruch for their efforts. These donations take place in a hurry so they are not always listed, and on several occasions, the same land is given twice.
Christina abdicated on June 6, 1654 supporting her cousin Charles Gustav. During the resignation ceremony at Uppsala Castle, Christina wore her regalia, which was ceremonially removed from her, one by one. Per Brahe, who was supposed to take off the crown, did not move, so he had to take the crown off himself. Dressed in a simple white taffeta dress, she gave her farewell speech in a shaky voice, thanked everyone and left the throne to Charles X Gustav, who was dressed in black. Per Brahe feels that he "stands there as beautiful as an angel." Charles Gustav was crowned that day. Christina left the country in a few days.
Departure and seclusion
In the summer of 1654, Christina left Sweden in menswear with the help of Bernardino de Rebolledo, and drove as Count Dohna, through Denmark. Relations between the two countries are still so tense that a former Swedish queen can not travel safely in Denmark. Christina has packed and sent valuable books, paintings, sculptures, and tapestries abroad from her Stockholm castle, leaving her very depleted treasure.
Christina visited Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and while there thought that her successor must have a bride. He sent letters recommending the two daughters of Duke to Charles. Based on this recommendation, he eventually married Hedwig Eleonora. On July 10 he arrived in Hamburg.
Christina visited Johann Friedrich Gronovius, and Anna Maria van Schurman in the Netherlands. In August, he arrived in South Holland, and settled in Antwerp. For four months Christina lodged in the home of a Jewish merchant. He was visited by Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria; Prince de Condà © ©, Ambassador Pierre Chanut, and former Norwegian governor Hannibal Sehested. In the afternoon he goes to ride, every night party is held; there are games to watch or music to listen to. Christina ran quickly out of money and had to sell some of her rugs, silver, and jewelry. When his financial situation did not improve, the nobleman invited him to the Brussels palace in Coudenberg. On December 24, 1654, he converted to Catholicism in the great chapel in front of Juan GuÃÆ'ªmes Dominica, Raimondo Montecuccoli, and Pimentel. He did not declare his conversion publicly, in case the Swedish council might refuse to pay his allowance. In addition, Sweden is preparing for a war against Pomerania, which means that its earnings from there are greatly reduced. Pope and Philip IV of Spain can not support him publicly, as he has not openly become Catholic. Christina managed to arrange a large loan, leaving behind books and sculptures to pay off her debt.
In September, he left for Italy with his entourage of 255 people and 247 horses. The pope's envoy, librarian Lucas Holstenius, a convert, was waiting for him in Innsbruck. On 3 November 1655, Christina announced her conversion to Roman Catholicism in the Hofkirche and wrote to Pope Alexander VII and her cousin Charles X about it. To celebrate his official conversion, L'Argia , opera by Antonio Cesti, was done. Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria, who is already in financial trouble, is said to have been ruined by his visit. His departure on November 8th.
Depart to Rome
The journey south through Italy was planned in detail by the Vatican and had a brilliant victory at Ferrara, Bologna, Faenza and Rimini. In Pesaro, Christina became acquainted with Santinelli's handsome brother, who deeply impressed her with the poetry and her dancing skills she brought into service, as well as Gian Rinaldo Monaldeschi. Official entry to Rome occurred on December 20, on a sofa designed by Bernini through Porta Flaminia, known today as Porta del Popolo. Christina met Bernini the next day, she invited her to her apartment the same night and they became lifelong friends. "Two days after that he was taken to the Vatican Basilica, where the pope confirmed, that's when he received from the pope his second name from Alexandra, his own feminine form." He was given his own wings inside the Vatican, decorated by Bernini.
Christina's visit to Rome was the victory of Pope Alexander VII and the opportunity for a beautiful Baroque party. For several months, he was the only preoccupation of the Pope and his court. The nobles compete for his attention and treat him with endless fireworks, fighting, mocking dueling, acrobatics, and opera. On January 31 Vita Humana an opera by Marco Marazzoli was done. At Palazzo Barberini, where she was greeted on 28th February by several hundred spectators, she watched a stunning carousel in the yard.
Palazzo Farnese
Christina has settled in Palazzo Farnese, owned by Duke of Parma. Every Wednesday he hosts an open palace for visitors from higher classes who are busy with poetry and intellectual discussions. Christina opened an academy at the palace on January 24, 1656, called the Academy of Arcadia, where participants enjoyed music, theater and literature. Poet Reyer Anslo presented to him. The Arcadia circle is also Francesco Negri, a Franciscan from Ravenna who is considered the first tourist to visit North Cape, Norway. The other Franciscans were Swedish Lars Skytte, who, under the name of Fr. Laurentius, served as Christina's confession for eight years.
The twenty-nine-year-old Christina gives a lot of gossip when socializing freely with men her age. One of them is Cardinal Decio Azzolino, who was once secretary of the ambassador in Spain, and is responsible for the Vatican's correspondence with European courts. He is also the leader of the Squadrone Volante, the free-thinking "Flying Squad" movement within the Catholic Church. Christina and Azzolino were so close that the pope asked him to shorten his visit to his palace; but they remain friends for life. In a letter dated January 26, 1676 to Azzolino Christina wrote (in French) that she would never hurt God or give Azzolino an excuse to be offended, but this "does not prevent me from loving you to death, and because piety frees you from being Beloved , then I set you free from my servant, for I will live and die as your slave. "Because he has promised to remain celibate, the reward is more devoted. While Christina knows that Sweden has confiscated all her income when the princess has become a Catholic. Visit
to France and Italy
Philip IV, King of Spain at the time, ruled the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples. French politician Mazarin, an Italian himself, has sought to free Napoli from Spanish rule, against which the locals had fought before the Neapolitan Republic (1647) was created. The second expedition in 1654 failed and Duke Guise surrendered. Christina's goal was to be a mediator between France and Spain in their contest to control Napoli. His plan was detailed that he would lead the French troops to take Napoli and reign until it bequeathed the crown to France after his death. Christina sent home all her servants in Spain, including her beloved, Pimentel, and Gu'ªmes. On July 20, 1656 Christina sailed from Civitavecchia to Marseille, where she arrived nine days later. In early August he went to Paris, accompanied by the Duke of Guise. Mazarin did not give him an official sponsor, but gave instructions that he was celebrated and entertained in every city on his way north.
On September 8, he arrived in Paris and was shown; Women are shocked by her masculine looks and freedom of unattended conversation. When visiting a ballet with la Grande Mademoiselle, he, as last remembered, "greatly surprised me - applauded the parts of his fun, brought God to watch, threw himself back into his chair, crossed his legs, and placed it on his arm. chair, and assuming another posture, as I have never seen but by Travelin and Jodelet, two famous clowns... He is in all respects the most extraordinary being.
He was treated with respect by the young Louis XIV and his mother in CompiÃÆ'¨gne. On September 22, 1656, the arrangement between him and Louis XIV was ready. He will recommend Christina as queen for the Kingdom of Naples, and serves as the guarantor against the Spanish aggression. As Queen of Naples she will be financially independent of the king of Sweden, and also able to negotiate peace between France and Spain.
On the way back Christina visited the beautiful and atheist Ninon de l'Enclos at the abbey in Lagny-sur-Marne. In early October, he left France and arrived in Torino. During winter Christina lived in apostolic palace in Pesaro, presumably to escape the plague in Rome. (This epidemic plagued several areas including Naples, where 250,000 people died within two years.) In July 1657 he returned to France, seemingly impatient. It is not known where he lived that summer. At Fontainebleau he was ordered by the court to stop.
Monaldeschi's Death
On October 15, 1657 the apartment was assigned to him at Fontainebleau Palace, where he committed acts that tarnished his memory: the execution of Gian Rinaldo Monaldeschi, the horse master and former leader of the French party in Rome. For two months, he suspected Monaldeschi's disloyalty; he secretly confiscated his correspondence, which revealed that he had betrayed his interest. Christina gave three packages of letters to Le Bel, a priest, to keep them in custody. Three days later, at one o'clock on a Saturday afternoon, he called Monaldeschi into the Galerie des Cerfs, discussing the matter and the letter with him. He insists that treason should be punished by death. He was convinced that he had announced his own death sentence. After an hour or so Le Bel will receive his confession. Both Le Bel and Monaldeschi pleaded for mercy, but he was stabbed by his housekeeper - especially Ludovico Santinelli - in his stomach and around his neck. Wearing his coat, which protected him, he was chased in a nearby room before finally succeeding in treating a fatal wound in his throat. "In the end, he dies, admits his ugliness and admits [Santinelli] is innocent, protesting that he has found a whole fantastic story to destroy [him]."
Father Le Bel was told he was buried inside the church, and Christina, who seemed unaffected, paid a monastery to say a number of Masses for her soul. He "regretted that he had been forced to carry out this execution, but claimed that justice had been done for his crime and his betrayal.
Mazarin, who has sent his old friend Chanut, advised Christina to blame her for fighting amongst the courtiers, but insisted that he himself was responsible for the action. He wrote a letter to Louis XIV that two weeks later paid him a friendly visit without mentioning it. In Rome, people feel different; Monaldeschi has become an Italian nobleman, murdered by a foreign barbarian with Santinelli as one of the executioners. The letters that prove his guilt are gone; Christina leaves them with Le Bel and only he insists that they exist. Christina never revealed what was in the letters, but according to Le Bel, it should have talked about her "amours", either with Monaldeschi or anyone else. He himself wrote his version of the story to be circulated in Europe.
The murder of Monaldeschi in the French court was legitimate, as Christina had the right of judgment over her court members, as justified by her vocator, Gottfried Leibniz. When his contemporaries saw him, Christina as queen had to emphasize right and wrong, and her sense of responsibility was strong. She continues to think of herself as the solemn queen of her entire life.
He would gladly visit England, but he did not receive encouragement from Cromwell and stayed at Fontainebleau because nobody offered him a place. Anne from Austria, Louis XIV's mother, can not wait to get rid of her cruel guest; Christina had no choice but to leave. He returned to Rome and dismissed Santinelli in 1659, claiming to be his ambassador in Vienna without his consent.
Return to Rome
On May 15, 1658, Christina arrived in Rome for the second time, but this time there was no victory. With Monaldeschi's execution, his popularity is lost. Pope Alexander VII remained in his summer residence and did not want any further visits from him. He describes it as 'a woman born of a barbarian, brought up barbarous and living with barbaric thought [...] with a ferocious and almost unbearable pride'. He lived in the Palazzo Rospigliosi, which belonged to Mazarin, the French cardinal, located close to the Quirinal Palace; so the whale was so relieved when in July 1659 he moved to Trastevere to stay at Palazzo Riario, under Janiculum, designed by Bramante. It was Cardinal Azzolino, his "bookkeeper" who signed the contract, as well as giving him a new maid to replace Francesco Santinelli, who had become a Monaldeschi executioner.
Riario Palace became his home for the rest of his life. He decorated the wall with a tapestry by Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi and paintings, mainly from the Venetian School and Renaissance; and almost no painting from northern European painters, except for Holbein, Van Dyck, and Rubens. The collection includes very few religious teaching materials and an abundance of mythological imagery, so it seems that Christina is more interested in Rome because of her relationship with classical history than her contemporary Catholic church. There is no Roman art collection that can match his own. There are portraits of his friends Azzolino, Bernini, Ebba Sparre, Descartes, ambassador Chanut, and doctors Bourdelot.
Revisiting Sweden
In April 1660 Christina was informed that Charles X Gustav had died in February. His son, Charles XI, was only five years old. That summer, he went to Sweden, showing that he had left the throne for his cousin and his descendants, so if Charles XI died, he would take over the throne again. But because he was an unlikely Catholic, and the clergy refused to let the priests in his entourage celebrate any Mass. Christina left Stockholm and went to Norrköping. Finally he submitted a second resignation to the throne, spending a year in Hamburg to get his finances on his way back to Rome. Already in 1654 he left his earnings to banker Diego Teixeira in return for him sending him a monthly allowance and covering his debts in Antwerp. He visits the Texeira family in Jungfernstieg and entertains them at his own inn.
In the summer of 1662, he arrived in Rome for the third time, followed by several happy years. Various complaints and accusations made him decide in 1666 once again to return to Sweden. He went no farther than NorrkÃÆ'¶ping, where he received a decree he was only allowed to settle in Pommerania Sweden. Christina immediately decided to return to Hamburg. There he was told that Alexander VII, his patron and torturers, had died in May 1667. The new pope, Clement IX, victory for the squadron, had become a regular guest in his palace. In his excitement at his election, he held a brilliant party at his inn in Hamburg, with illuminations and wine in the fountain outside. The party angered the Lutheran population in Hamburg, and the party ended with shootings, attempts to seize the Queen, and his escape by way of disguise through the back door. The Texeira family must cover the repair. Once again he meets with Giuseppe Francesco Borri's con artist.
On September 16, 1668, John II Casimir handed over the Polish-Lithuanian throne, and returned to France. The Polish monarchy was a choice and Christina made the effort to get the right to govern Poland. She recommends being Catholic, an old maid and wants to remain one. He has the support of Pope Clement IX; but his failure seems to please him because it means he can return to his favorite Azzolino. He left town on October 20, 1668.
Home to Rome and death
Christina's fourth and final work in Rome took place on November 22, 1668. Clement IX often visited her; they have the same interests in the drama. Christina hosts an Accademia meeting in the Great Hall which has a 'platform for singers and players'. When the pope suffered a stroke, he was among the few he wanted to see on his deathbed. In 1671 Christina founded the first public theater in Rome in the former prison, Tor in the Nona.
The new pope, Clement X, worries about the influence of theater on public morals. When Innocent XI became pope, things got worse; in a few years he made Christina's theater into a warehouse of grain storage, though he was often a guest in his royal box with other cardinals. She forbids women to come up with a song or acting, and wearing a decolletÃÆ'Â © dress. Christina thinks this is nonsense, and lets women perform in her palace. In 1675 he invited AntÃÆ'³nio Vieira to become the father of his confession.
Christina wrote an unfinished autobiography, where there are still some concepts, essays about heroes Alexander the Great, Cyrus the Great and Julius CÃÆ'Â|sar, about art and music ("PensÃÆ' Â © es, L'Ouvrage du Loisir" and "Les Sentiment HÃÆ'Ã… © roÃÆ'¯ques ") and acts as a protector for musicians and poets such as Vincenzo da Filicaja. Carlo Ambrogio Lonati and Giacomo Carissimi are Kapellmeister; Lelio Colista luteplayer; Loreto Vittori and Marco Marazzoli singer and librettist Sebastiano Baldini. He has Alessandro Stradella and Bernardo Pasquini to calm him down; Arcangelo Corelli dedicates his first work, Sonata da chiesa opus 1 , to him. On February 2, 1687 Corelli or Alessandro Scarlatti presided over the outstanding orchestra to perform Cantquito Pasquini in praise for James II, the first English Catholic king since Mary I to welcome Roger Palmer, the first Earl of Castlemaine as new ambassador to the Vatican, accompanied by painter John Michael Wright, who knows Rome and speaks Italian.
His rebel politics and spirits lasted long after he relinquished power. When Louis XIV of France abrogated the Nantes Code, abolished French Protestant rights (Huguenots), Christina wrote an angry letter dated February 2, 1686, directed at the French ambassador Cesar d'Estrees. The King of the Sun does not appreciate his views, but Christina should not be silenced. In Rome, he made Pope Clement X prohibit the habit of chasing the Jews through the streets during the carnival. On August 15, 1686, he issued a declaration that the Roman Jews were under his protection, signing la Regina - queens.
Christina remained very tolerant of the beliefs of others throughout her life. He in part felt more interested in the views of Spanish priest Miguel Molinos, whom he worked as a private theologian. He has been investigated by the Holy Inquisition for proclaiming that sin is part of the lower man and is not subject to human free will. Christina sent her food and hundreds of letters when she was locked up in Castel Sant'Angelo.
In February 1689, the 62-year-old Christina fell severely ill after a visit to the temples in Campania, and received the last ceremony. She had diabetes mellitus. Christina appears to be recovering, but in mid-April she developed an acute streptococcal bacterial infection known as erysipelas, then developed pneumonia and high fever. On his deathbed, he sends a message to the pope asking if he can forgive his blasphemy. He died on April 19, 1689 at Palazzo Corsini at six o'clock in the morning.
Funeral
Christina had requested a simple funeral at the Pantheon, Rome, but the pope insisted that she be featured on the lit de parade for four days at Riario Castle. She was embalmed, covered with white brocade, silver mask, gold crown and royal scepter. "The Queen is wearing a thin coat, decorated with hundreds of crowns and feathers lined with stoats, below beautiful underwear in two pieces, thin gloves and drawers of silk knits and a pair of elegant textile boots." In a similar way to the whales, his body is placed in three coffins - one pine tree, one from tin and the last one made of teak. The funeral procession on 2 May was led by Santa Maria di Vallicella to St. Peter's Basilica, where she was buried in the Grotte Vaticane - only one of three women ever honored. His intestines were placed in a tall jar.
In 1702 Clement XI commissioned a monument to the queen, whose conversion vainly foresaw the return of his country to the Faith and to who contributed to the culture of the city he looked back with gratitude. The monument is placed in the body of the basilica and directed by artist Carlo Fontana.
Christina had appointed Azzolino as the sole beneficiary to ensure her debt was repaid, but she was too sick and tired even to join her funeral, and died in June of the same year. His niece, Pompeo Azzolino, was his sole heir, and he quickly sold Christina's art collection.
Art collector
Until 1649, when Christina was twenty-three years old, the royal art collection of Sweden was not impressive, with a fine rug but for painting, a little more than "about a hundred works by German painters, Flemish, and small Swedish". But in May 1649, the extraordinary booty from the occupation of the previous year's Castle of Prague arrived, with a collection of collections collected by obsessive collectors, Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor (1552-1612), one of the most important in Europe. The mass purchases of Rudolf include the famous collection of Emperor Charles V, Cardinal Granvelle (1517-86), who had imposed his nephew and heir to Granvelle to sell to him. Granvelle has become "the greatest personal collector of his time, friend and patron of Titian and Leoni and many other artists",
Christina was captivated by her new treasures, and remained a keen collector for the rest of her life, and as a collector of women's art was only surpassed by Catherine the Great of Russia in the Early Modern period. Rudolf has collected old and contemporary works from Italy and Northern Europe, but Italian paintings that excite Christina, and with her death, her collection contains relatively few northern works in addition to portraits.
Much of Prague booty remains in Sweden after Christina's departure for exile: she only carries about 70 to 80 paintings with her, including about 25 portraits of her friends and family, and about 50 paintings, mostly Italians, from Prague stolen, as well statues, gems, 72 rugs, and various other artworks. He worried that the royal collection would be claimed by his successor, and wisely sent them forward to Antwerp by ship in August 1653, nearly a year before he abdicated, a sign of his initial intentions.
Christina greatly expanded her collection during her exile in Rome, for example adding five small raphael predella panels from the Colonna Altarpiece, including Agony in the Garden which is now reunited with the main panel in New York, purchased from a monastery near Rome. He was apparently given Titian's Death of Actaeon by the greatest collector of the time, Archduke Leopold William of Austria, Viceroy in Brussels - he received many such gifts from Catholic royalties after his conversion, and gave some generous gifts of himself, especially the Albrecht Derber panel of Adam and Eve to Philip IV of Spain (now Prado). He also gave two paintings by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Dull Gret and The Cripples (now Louvre). In this way, the balance of his collection turned to Italian art.
Riario Palace has finally given a suitable arrangement for its collection, and Sala dei Quadri ("Painting Room") has her best work, with thirteen Titians and eleven Veroneses, five Raphaels and several Correggio. Titian's Venus Anadyomene is among them. Venus grieves Adonis by Veronese is from Prague, and now returns to Sweden (Nationalmuseum).
Christina liked to assign her portraits of herself, friends, and also to famous people she had not yet met, beginning in 1647 sending David Beck, Dutch court painter, to several countries to paint the inexperience. He encouraged artists to study his collection, including his drawings, and showcased some of his paintings, but apart from portraits he commissioned or bought some works by a living painter, except for the picture. The sculptor was somewhat better, and Bernini was a friend, while the others were assigned to restore a large collection of classic sculptures that he began to raft while still in Sweden.
On his death he left his collection to Cardinal Decio Azzolino, who died alone within a year, leaving the collection to his nephew, who sold it to Don Livio Odescalchi, commander of the papal army, which at the time contained 275 paintings, 140 of them Italians. A year after Odescalchi's death in 1713, his heirs began a protracted negotiation with fascinating French connoisseur and collector Pierre Crozat, acting as mediator of Philippe II, Duke of Orlà © ans, of the 1715 Regent of France. The sale was finally concluded and 123 paintings were included in the sale submitted in 1721, forming the core of the Orleans Collection, the paintings of which were mostly sold in London after the French Revolution, there is still much left in England. French experts complain that Christina has cut several paintings to fit the ceiling, and has returned some of the best work, especially Correggio, which involves Carlo Maratti.
Initially, removing his collection from Sweden was seen as a major loss to the state; but in 1697 Stockholm's castle burned down with the loss of almost everything in it, so they would be destroyed if they stayed there. The collection of statues was sold to the King of Spain, and most remained in Spanish museums and castles. His large and important library was purchased by Alexander VIII for the Vatican library, while most paintings ended in France, as the core of the Orleans Collection - many of which remain together at the National Gallery of Scotland. 1700 images from his collection (including Michelangelo (25) and Raphael) were obtained in 1790 by Willem Anne Lestevenon for the Teylers Museum in Haarlem, The Netherlands.
Appearance
Christina's historical record includes regular references to physical features, behavior and style of dress. Christina is known to have hunchbacks, chest defects, and irregular shoulders. Some historians speculate that references to his physical attributes may be over-represented in the associated historiography, giving the impression that this is more appealing to his contemporaries than it actually does. However, given how influential Christina was in her own time (especially to those in Rome), her chances of style and behavior were least attractive to the people around her, and this was reflected in many notes. As a result of conflicting and unreliable accounts (some not better than gossip), the way Christina is depicted, even today, is a matter of debate.
According to Christina's own autobiography, the midwife at her first birth believed she was a boy because she was "really hairy and had a rough and strong voice". Such ambiguity does not end with his birth; Christina made a vague statement about the "constitution" and her body throughout her life. Christina also believes a wet nurse carelessly drops her on the floor when she is a baby. The shoulder bone is broken, leaving one shoulder higher than the other for the rest of his life. Some of his contemporaries refer to different heights of shoulders.
As a child, Christina's behavior might be described as a tomboy. His father insisted he should receive "the education of a prince," and some have interpreted this as acceptance, on the part of the king, that he has masculine traits or that there is some form of gender ambiguity in his upbringing. In fact, she received the same education (from her aunt) as her cousins, even though the account showed her being more physically active and boisterous. However, he showed a greater interest in sports and boy games. He is taught (and enjoys) fences, horseback riding, and bear hunting.
As an adult, it is said that Christina "walks like a man, sits down and rides like a man, and can eat and swear like the rudest soldier". Contemporary Christina John Bargrave describes her behavior in the same way but says witnesses consider her style more childish or mader than masculinity. When he arrived in Rome in 1655, he had shaved his head and wore a large, dark wig. In 1665, according to Edward Browne, he regularly wore maggot, cravat, and human foolishness.
While Christina may not be alone in her own time to choose a masculine dress (Leonora Christina Ulfeldt, for example, known for dressing in the same way), she also has a physical feature that is described as masculine. According to Henry II, Duke of Guise, "he wears his men's shoes and his voice and almost all his actions are masculine". When he arrived in Lyon, he again put on a toque and styled his hair like a young man's hair. Noted that he also wore powder and face cream in large quantities. In one account he was "sunburned, and he looked like some sort of Egyptian street girl, very strange, and more worrying than exciting".
Living in Rome, he had a close relationship with Cardinal Azzolino, who was controversial, but symbolic of his interest in the unusual relationship for a woman in his era and station. He abandoned his manly clothing and took to wear the dÃÆ'  © colletÃÆ'  © gowns so risquà © that they attract a reprimand from the Pope.
As an older woman, Christina's style changed slightly. FranÃÆ'§ois Maximilian Misson (visited Rome in the spring of April 1688) wrote:
He is over sixty years old, very small, very fat and fat. His skin and his voice and face are male. He has a big nose, big blue eyes, blond eyebrows, and a double chin that grows some beards. His upper lips are slightly prominent. Her hair is light brown, and the length is only one hand; she put on the powder and stood on the tip, untouched. He is very smiling and grateful. You would not believe his clothes: a man's jacket, in black satin, up to his knees, and buttoned all the way down; a very short black skirt, and men's shoes; a very large band of black ribbon instead of cravat; and a belt pulled tightly beneath his stomach, showing the noise very well.
Gender ambiguity and sexuality
In her Autobiography (1681) Christina flirts with her androgyny personality. The question of his sexuality has been debated, even when some modern biographers generally regard him as a lesbian, and his relationship with women is recorded during his lifetime; Christina seems to have written passionate letters to Ebba Sparre, and Guilliet suggests a relationship between Christina and Gabrielle de Rochechouart de Mortemart, Rachel, nephew Diego Teixeira, and singer Angelina Giorgino. Some historians assert that he maintained a heterosexual, non-sexual, lesbian, or bisexual relationship during his life depending on which source was consulted. According to Veronica Buckley, Christina is a "dabbler" who "painted lesbians, prostitutes, hermaphrodites, and atheists" by his contemporaries, although "in those tumultuous times, it is difficult to determine which of the most aggravating labels". Christina wrote near the end of her life that she was "either male or Hermafrodite, because some People in the World have passed for me".
Bargrave relates that Christina's relationship with Azzolino is "familiar" and "romance" and that Azzolino has been sent (by the Pope) to Romania as punishment for defending it. Buckley, on the other hand, believes there is "in Christina a strange gloom associated with sex" and that "the sexual relationship between himself and Azzolino, or another man, seems unlikely". Based on Christina's physical history record, some experts believe that she may be an intersex (someone with a combination of genitals, hormones or chromosomes of women and men).
In 1965, these conflicting accounts led to the investigation of Christina's remains. The physical anthropologist Carl-Herman HjortsjÃÆ'¶, who conducted the investigation, explained: "Our imperfect knowledge of intersex effects on skeletal formation [...] makes it impossible to decide which positive skeletal findings should be required to base on the" intersex. However, HjortsjÃÆ'¶ speculates that Christina has a woman's unique female genitalia since it was recorded by her doctors Bourdelot and Macchiati that she had menstruation. HjortsjÃÆ'â "¢ osteological analysis of the Christina framework leads him to assert that they are of" usually female "structures.
Some of the symptoms can be caused by polycystic ovary syndrome, complex multi-endocrine disorders including hirsutism (male pattern/hair growth type) due to elevated levels of androgen hormones, and abdominal obesity due to insulin hormone receptor defects. Buckley suggests that his low comprehension of the necessity of most social norms, little desire to act, dress, or perform other social norms and preferences to wear, act, and do only what he logically perceives as practical, shows him to have Pervasive. Developmental disorder is, Asperger's Syndrome.
Legacy
Christina's complex character has inspired many dramas, books, and works of opera:
- Opera 1848 of Jacopo Foroni Cristina, regina di Svezia is based on events surrounding its release. Other operas based on his life, including Alessandro Nini Cristina di Svezia (1840), Giuseppe Lillo Cristina di Svezia (1841), and Sigismond Thalberg Cristina di Svezia > (1855)
- August Strindberg publishes Kristina (1901)
- Zacharias Topelius wrote the historical allegory StjÃÆ'¤rnornas Kungabarn (1899-1900)
- Christina's life is famous for fiction in the classic feature film Queen Christina (1933). The film, starring Greta Garbo, depicts a heroine whose life is very different from the real Christina.
- In the Italian film Love and Poison (1950/52) Christina is played by actress Lois Maxwell.
- Kaari Utrio publishes Kartanonherra ja kaunis Kristin (1969).
- In The Abdication (1974), starring Liv Ullmann, Christina arrives at the Vatican and falls in love with Cardinal Azzelino. The script is based on the game by Ruth Wolff.
- Herta J. Enevoldsen wrote two novels in Denmark in his life, Heltekongens Datter (1975) and En Dronning VÃÆ'Â|rdig (1976).
- Laura Ruohonen writes "Queen C" (2003), which presents women centuries before its time living by its own rules.
- In the alternative history of the Eric Flint 1632 series, part of the Assiti Shards universe, he is the main character.
- Jade Comedian Esteban Estrada portrayed herself (2004) in solo music ICONS: The Lesbian and Gay History of the World Vol. 2.
- Michel Marc Bouchard's Christina, The Girl King , is a short biography of Queen Christina's short rule that aired in 2012.
- Mika KaurismÃÆ'¤ki's Movie, The Girl King , based on drama, premium on December 11, 2015.
Place name:
- Kristiine District in Tallinn, Estonia.
Ancestor
Footnote
References
Bibliography
- ÃÆ'... kerman, S. (1991). Queen Christina of Sweden and her circle: the transformation of philosophical freedom of the seventeenth century . New York: E.J. Brill. ISBNÃ, 90-04-09310-9.
- Buckley, Veronica (2004). Christina; Queen of Sweden . London: Harper Perennial. ISBN: 1-84115-736-8. Source of the article : Wikipedia
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